PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

We live and develop in a “knowledge society” in which historical and philosophical considerations of science are necessary to understand the present day. As a result of this need, the department is renewing and reinforcing course offerings and research in the history and philosophy of science, promoting a diverse and interdisciplinary perspective with the goal of creating, over time, a community recognized in national and international spheres.
The course in 'Philosophy of Science' is part of a teaching package offered for this area [together with (Triennale) Epistemologia storica, Logica; History of science, Logica della matematica; (Magistrale) Philosophy of social science; Political Epistemology; Renaissance natural philosophy, alchemy, astrology, and magic; (Corsi affini) Bioetica; Etica Sociale e Bioetica; Storia della Logica; (PISE) Logic&Philosophy of Science].
The overall objective of this module is to show how philosophical tools, concepts and apparata (both from classic philosophical debates and from the specific field under investigation) can be used and applied to the analysis and understanding of scientific reasoning.

- a good grasp of the basic concepts and philosophical issues in the philosophy of science
- a good background knowledge of the main philosophical debates concerning the nature and role of scientific method (past and current)
- knowledge of major epistemological and methodological perspectives in the philosophy of science.

Students in this course should also be able to acquire:
- the capacity to reason in an analytic style of argument
- the capacity to single out and discuss the practical implications of the questions and problems raised by the contexts where the philosophical concepts under investigations are used
- to assess the role and relevance of philosophical understanding in the realm of scientific reasoning.

No previous knowledge in the philosophy of science is expected.

The title of this course - 'Scientific method: one, many, none' - encapsulates the different angles and directions taken by the debate on scientific method, starting from its very beginning in the 16th century, with Francis Bacon, to reach then a number of alternative descriptions, all the way down to the ultimate challenge of a negation of its existence. In this course, some of these descriptions will be analaysed, by pointing out also some of their problems and consequent criticisms addressed to them. We will also raise the issue of scientific method in contemporary science, taking as our starting point the questions and needs of science in practice.

Details of content:
1. Beginnings: Bacon, Hume, Mill.
2. The falsificationist stance and its critics.
3. Pluralism or anarchism?
4. The hypothetical deductive model
5. Current perspectives: method and methods

1) Primary sources:
- Bacon,estratti da Novum Organon; Hume, estratti da Enquiries; Mill, estratti da System of Logic (disponibili su Moodle)
2) Secondary sources:
- Russell, B., ‘On Induction’, da The Problems of Philosophy (1912), ch 6.
- Strawson, P., ‘The “Justification” of Induction’, da Introduction to Logical Theory (1952)
- Popper, K., ‘La Scienza: Congetture e Confutazioni’, in Congetture e Confutazioni (1969-ed. ital. 1972), cap 1.
- Lakatos, I., ‘La falsificazione e la metodologia dei programmi di ricerca scientifica’, in Lakatos-Musgrave, Critica e Crescita della Conoscenza (1970-ed. ital. 1976), parte 3; Appendice facoltativa.
- Kuhn, T., ‘La natura e la necessità delle rivoluzioni scientifiche’, da La Struttura delle Rivoluzioni Scientifiche (1962- ed. ital. 1969), cap. 9.
- Feyerabend, P, sull’argomento della torre, da Contro il Metodo (1975-ed. ital. 1979), cap. 6.
- Hempel, C., ‘Scientific Inquiry: Invention and Test, da Philosophy of Natural Sciences (1966), cap. 2.
- Lipton, P. ‘Inference to the Best Explanation’, da W.H. Newton-Smith (ed) A Companion to the Philosophy of Science (Blackwell, 2000).
3) Testi facoltativi:
Ladyman, J., ‘Falsificationism’, da Understanding Phiulosophy of Science.
Chalmers, A., Che cos’è questa scienza? (ed. ital. 1978), cap.6,7,8.
Gillies, D., ‘Hempelian and Kuhnian Approaches in the Philosophy of Medicine: The Semmelwise case’, Stud. Hist.Phil.Biol&Biomed 36, 2005.

Final assessment is by a two-hours written examination. The exam will consist of three questions, each addressing an issue arisen from the topics discussed during the course. Each answer should demonstrate both a basic understanding of the issues and a capacity for answering each question in a well argued and focused manner. The grade received for the course depends on exam performance only. However, keeping up with the reading assigned for each lectures and, where possible, participating in discussion are the most effective way to prepare for exams. It is also an effective way for students to monitor their strengths and weaknesses, and to discover and remedy gaps in their understanding, all in good time ahead of exams.

Each topic will be introduced by a lecture that will present the central aspects of the topic, the different perspectives from which to address it, and examples that illustrate the relevance of abstract theoretical reasoning to the practical understanding of scientific discourse. Possible seminars with guest speakers.

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